Fanta Kouyate

The Impact of Gender Binary on Black CisWomanhood 

Student Name: Fanta Kouyate

Supervisor Name : Gorgiana Kotsou

ID: i6224025

Words: 9227 – with abstract

Date:29/11/24

Abstract

Black cisgender women have unique experiences with discrimination compared to white cisgender women. The purpose of this study is to explore how gender binary and intersecting identity markers impact the femininity idealization and experiences of black women in America. The study is conducted through Kimberley Crenshaw’s intersectionality framework and Afro-pessimism ideologies. The theories provide a theoretical backdrop to study the impact of gender binary on Black ciswomanhood. In carrying out this research via Crenshaw’s intersectionality framework and Afro-pessimism ideologies, this study reviews the literature on how various intersecting identities such as race, gender, class, and sexuality interact to impact the lived experiences of Black cisgender women. This study examines how these intersections limit the rights and protections for black cisgender women, thus leading to increased exposure to police brutality against black women. To substantiate this claim, this study is conducted through a review of secondary data on the womanhood on cisgender African American females with a focus on the #SayHerName movement, its origins, and motivation. #SayHerName movement is studied as an example to study the impact of gender binary of Black ciswomanhood. This study reveals that gender duality places women in a subordinate societal position, and the respective gender norms accorded to the male and female gender attest to this subordination.

Additionally, Black cisgender womanhood is diminished compared to White cisgender womanhood because Black women do not reflect the general standards of femininity under cisgenderism. This research also unveils various offensive stereotypes describing Black women that underlie the historical construction of their womanhood. Using Afro-pessimism and anti-blackness as underlying ideologies, this research shows that Black women are poorly treated due to perceptions of them belonging to an inferior race. Likewise, the intersectionality framework demonstrates how various identifiers, such as race, gender, social class, and sexuality, interact to promote violence against black women, including police brutality. The lived experienced of Black women, their media representation, and how these women have to suffer more in so many ways is what makes the core of this study. Therefore, this paper contributes to Black feminist discourses that support examining the experiences of Black cisgender women as those driven by their intersecting identities. 

Table of Contents

Abstract

Introduction

Methodological Framework

Section One: The Gender Binary and Its Implications

Definition of the Gender Binary and Its Prevalence in Societal Norms

The Impact of The Gender Binary on Women’s Rights and Social Standing

Gender Binary Intersection with Race and How it Contributes to the Marginalization of Black Cisgender Women.

Section Two: Intersectionality: Theoretical Framework

Introduction to intersectionality

Explaining Intersectionality as a Framework

Key Concepts of the Intersectional Theory

Section Three: Intersecting Identity Markers

Exploring Intersecting Identity Markers such as Race, Gender, Class, and Sexuality

Analysis of How Intersecting Identities Shape Discrimination Experiences for African American Cisgender Women

Afro-pessimism

Black Cisgender Women’s Experiences as a Product of Intersecting Identities

Section Four: Historical Constructions of African American Femininity

Overview of Historical Constructions of African American Femininity from Slavery Era to Current Times

Stereotypes, Media Representations, and Cultural Narratives Shaping Historical Constructions of Black Femininity

The Intersection of Historical Constructions with The Gender Binary and Perpetuation of Discrimination against Black Cisgender Women

Section Five: Contemporary Manifestations of Discrimination: #SayHerName

Introduction to the #SayHerName Movement

Race and Gender Binary in the Perpetuation of Discrimination Against Black Cisgender Women

Conclusion

References

Introduction

The focus of this research is to study the impacts of gender binary on Black cisgender women. Also, the #SayHerName movement will be reviewed as a case study to see how it reflects on this issue that Black cisgender women face.

Women everywhere confront discrimination due to dominant norms spearheaded by patriarchy and corresponding sexism (Gupta et al., 2023). However, African American cisgender women are disproportionately discriminated against compared to White-American women (Chaney et al., 2021). Cisgender originates from the term cis which is Latin for “on the same side” (Aultman, 2014, p. 61).  Cisgender individuals retain the assigned gender at birth. Cisgender concept, like binary gender, argues that there are two genders only (male and female) (Hyde et al., 2019).  

The researcher’s interest in studying this topic has increased because cisgender and binary gender discourse represents dominant societal norms that have become institutionalized, with the result that inequalities prevail (Darwin, 2020).  Female cisgender discourse remains at the heart of anti-transgender advocacy (McNamarah, 2023). Anti-transgender advocates usually claim that protecting transgender rights disadvantages cisgender women (McNamarah, 2023). However, an area of concern that should be considered in more depth is the increased prejudice for Black cisgender women compared to White cisgender women (Else-Quest & Hyde, 2016). 

The standards of womanhood dictated by white patriarchal society diminishes the womanhood of Black cisgender women (Jackson, 2017). This research is focused on the disadvantaged position of Black cisgender women. The central focus of this research is to study the impact of the gender binary and the the intersectionality of various factors on Black cisgender women. The theoretical framework in this study is based on various factors, including the intersectionality of race, gender, social class, and sexuality. This research will follow a secondary case study approach. #SayHerName movement will be studied in this research. 

This research also evaluates the historical constructs of African American femininity to demonstrate the devaluing of Black womanhood in American society, even in popular media representations.  Concepts and theories of intersectionality and Afro-pessimism are used to illuminate the disproportionate disadvantage of black cisgender women compared to their white counterparts. Intersectionality is a theoretical framework used to analyze and describe interactions with micro-level social identities in creating layers of disadvantage (Willie et al., 2022). Intersectionality explains how Black women face both sexism and racism due to having multiple identities dictated by gender and race (Crenshaw, 1991). 

Afro-pessimism demonstrates how Black people are devalued and prejudiced in society (Wilderson, 2020).  Theoretically, Afro-pessimism argues that to be Black is to suffer since Blackness and violence and oppression are intricately linked (Urena, 2021). The theories of Afro-pessimism and intersectionality are essential for demonstrating discrimination against black cisgender women and offer a good lens for examining the #SayHerName movement. The #SayherName movement highlights the increased but rarely-spoken instances of police brutality against black women. The mysterious death of an African American woman in police custody drew attention to police brutality against Black women and contributed to the emergence of the #SayherName movement (Reed, 2020). The researcher’s interest in this topic has increased due to such news, which is why this topic has been chosen for this study. 

The backdrop of this research has been presented in the introduction. After presenting the specific research questions, the methodological framework will be presented. The review of the literature is divided into five sections. The first section provides background information about the gender binary and its implications. This section will provide details for answering the first sub-question. The concepts of intersectionality and Afro-pessimism will be studied in the second and third sections. These sections will provide theoretical underpinnings to this research. The fourth section is focused on the historical construction of Black cisgender womanhood, answering the second sub-question. It also answers the question about media representation. The fifth section is focused on the #SayHerName movement, answering the third and fourth research questions. After presenting these five sections, the research will be concluded by answering the research questions based on the secondary literature. Also, based on this backdrop, this research will answer the following research questions.

Research Question: How does the #SayHerName movement reflect the impacts of the gender binary on Black cisgender womanhood?

This question will be answered by answering the following sub-questions. 

1. What are the impacts of the gender binary on Black cisgender women (in literature)?
2. How has Black cisgender womanhood been constructed historically? 
3. What are the intersecting identities involved in the #SayHerName movement? 
4. How does the media portrayal of the movement and its incidents relate to the historical construction/understandings/representation of Black cisgender womanhood? 

These questions will be answered by reviewing the secondary literature. 

Methodological Framework 

The methodology followed in this case depends on primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources include various journal articles that are reviewed to study the impact of gender binary on Black cisgender womanhood. Primary sources related to the case study #SayHerName will be studied, too. The list includes newspaper articles and social media posts. #SayHerName movement, meant to highlight police brutality against Black women, will be studied in this research. Information from various research papers, journal articles, and newspaper articles will be compared and contrasted to identify patterns and trends in the secondary qualitative data. This case study is particularly relevant to this topic because it highlights the role of intersectionality and Afro-pessimism that Black women have to face. This case study shows that Black women are more disadvantaged than even Black men. Primary and secondary data sources reviewed in this research shed light on the comparative disadvantages of Black cisgender womanhood. This research design is suitable because it provides a wide variety of points of view from the sources, including evidence-based research, editorials, social media posts, and newspaper commentaries. The benefit of relying on secondary data, in this case, is that secondary data adds to the depth and scope of this research. Secondary data about the impact of the gender binary on Black cisgender women is thorough and detailed. Various variables have been studied by a lot of researchers. It is possible because of the use of secondary data that in-depth knowledge is brought together to find answers to the research question. Secondary data has, thus, added to the depth and scope of this research. 

However, there are some limitations of this research design. While studying secondary sources, some cofactors or significant variables that can affect the outcome of the study may be ignored. Also, #SayHerName movement coverage through primary sources may cover some of the aspects, while other significant points might be missed. The focus of each primary source depends on the source owner’s approach and personal liking or disliking. The following framework presents the methodology.

Figure 1: Methodolgical Framework

Section One: The Gender Binary and Its Implications

This section introduces the key concepts of intersectionality and Afro-pessimism theories, the concept of “anti-blackness” and its implications on societal gender norms and women’s rights. 

Definition of the Gender Binary and Its Prevalence in Societal Norms

An individual’s sex is determined by birth genitalia assignments (Clarke, 2024).  The gender binary takes us further into the social construction and normative roles assigned based on one’s sex (Wickham et al., 2023). Gender duality presumes that there are only two sexes, male and female (Bird, 2017). Gender duality assumes that opposites attract, so it is a naturally occurring phenomenon when males and females are attracted to one another (Butler, 1999). The concepts of intersectionality and Afro-pessimism provide the theoretical backdrop to this study. Intersectionality, as discussed by Crenshaw (1991), highlights that social categories like race, class, sexuality, and gender are interrelated. 

Cisgenderism believes that the chromosomal makeup of individuals determines their gender (Morgenroth et al., 2020). Saguy et al. (2021) explain that gender duality assumes that the genetic gender compositions are pre-determined and cannot be changed. According to Morgenroth et al. (2020), designation of appropriate roles and behaviors for the sexes result in societal gender norms. Men and women have different biological makeup, resulting in different signature behavioral and mental predispositions and expectations (Saguy et al., 2021). Cisgenderism holds that the gender roles assigned to each sex should correspond to their behavioral and psychological predispositions. For example, the active and domineering essence of masculinity and the passive and subordinate nature of femininity are consistent with social expectations that men are breadwinners and women have domestic duties (Eriksson, 1998; Scott, 1986).  Saguy et al. (2021) argue that gender labeling uses binary language marking individuals as boys/girls and women/men. De Beauvoir (1949) claims this socialization is meant to project future gender-specific domestic duties. Therefore, cisgenderism prevails as evidenced by the gender-specific socialization of children and adults. 

The Impact of The Gender Binary on Women’s Rights and Social Standing

Historically women were always perceived as inferior to men, even before the advent of cisgenderism (Bergman, 2002). For the most part, patriarchy as a dominant norm dictates that femininity and masculinity within society require male dominance and female subjugation and subordination (Sultana, 2010-2011). When intersectionality comes into play, Black cisgender women are forced to be at the lowest level of the ladder. 

Before the 18^th century, women were considered a similar version of the male body (Eriksson, 1998). This one-sex model claimed women were men, with their organs turned inside out (Eriksson, 1998). Laquer (1990) elaborates that women are inferior to men -under the one-sex model- because they lack “vital heat” or the capacity to convert food into sperm (p. 41).  

Cisgenderism initiated a consciousness of the female gender and its vulnerabilities. Scott (1986) argues that gender duality draws attention to the gender differences. Hoskin (2020) argues that the association of masculinity with desirable character traits compared to femininity contributes to “masculine privilege and feminine inferiority (p. 20).” Masculine privilege constructs females as outsiders and men as insiders in a purely male institution (Abrams, 2016).  Hoskin (2020) argues that the perception of women as weak and submissive makes them an easy target for subjugation and aggression. Gay and straight cisgender women with feminine traits are more vulnerable targets for aggression compared to their counterparts with masculine characteristics (Hoskin et al., 2024). According to Hoskin et al. (2024), there are generally negative attitudes toward men with feminine traits and these attitudes predict anti-homosexual behaviors from heterosexual men. 

On the other hand, females with masculine traits are less likely to suffer prejudicial outcomes (Hoskin, 2020). Gender duality norms impair the autonomy of women regarding their sexuality, hence infringing on their rights (Bird, 2017).  In a qualitative study by Christianson et al. (2021), research findings revealed that young women who assert sexual autonomy by resisting and rejecting male efforts to exercise sexual control over them have suffered serious consequences including violence. Thomas (2020) claims that women perceived as impure and promiscuous breach the norms of womanhood and are thus shamed for freely expressing their sexuality. 

Women are also more likely to be locked out of leadership and decision-making roles (Galsanjigmed & Sekiguchi, 2023). Galsanjigmed and Sekiguchi (2023) conducted an integrated review of the literature on management and diversity.  Research findings revealed that women confront various obstacles to advancement in leadership which are all intricately tied to gender bias and stereotypes (Galsanjigmed & Sekiguchi, 2023). 

Gender Binary Intersection with Race and How it Contributes to the Marginalization of Black Cisgender Women.

Hoskin (2020) argues that gender duality only defines the characteristics and qualities of white womanhood. Cisgenderism idealizes femininity as Eurocentric, and patriarchal (Davis et al., 2018). Such aspects result in white standards of womanhood, where women are only valued if they are white, thin, cisgender, and heterosexual (Hoskin, 2020). Gender binary interaction with race can be explained better by applying the anti-Blackness concept here. Anti-Blackness is a systematic racial discriminatory approach towards the Black people. Black women face this anti-Black racism and Afro-pessimism. 

A study by Cole and Zucker (2007) shows that Black women and White women have different ideas and conceptualizations of what amounts to femininity. The study was carried out through a telephone survey among a sample population of 1130 women.  Research findings showed that although, both races thought that femininity consisted of the same categories, Black women seemed to believe that they possessed greater feminine traits than their White cohorts (Cole & Zuker, 2007). According to Cole & Zuker (2007), Black women’s perspectives on femininity are shaped by the intersectionality of various social constructs, including race and gender. 

Black women do not have the physical characteristics that define ideal womanhood under gender duality. Comrie et al. (2022) explain that “Eurocentric physical features (e.g., lighter skin, narrower nose, straighter hair) are afforded greater value and considered more desirable than Afrocentric physical features (e.g., darker skin, broader nose, more coarse hair)” (p. 74). The diminished nature of black womanhood due to their physical appearance results in the marginalization of black women. As Afro-pessimism explains, Black people are dehumanized to the level that the physically attractive characteristics of Black cisgender women are not considered attractive. 

Anti-blackness is a systematic form of racism that relates to the actions, practices, beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes within individuals and institutions that hamper the full participation of black people while devaluing and marginalizing them (Comrie et al., 2022; Wilderson, 2020). Due to anti-Blackness, Black women have to go through almost 50% more frisk and search incidents as compared to White women. The arrest rate and conviction rate that these women face are double the rate that White women face. Similarly, pay gap is because of the inherent bias against Black people. Furthermore, Clemons and Grieser (2023) claim that anti-blackness is demonstrative of “white supremacy, whiteness, and white apathy” (p. 18). Cisgenderism connects with anti-black racism to produce the marginalization of Black cisgender women. 

A key observation that emerges from the review of studies about gender binary shows that Black cisgender women face the first level of discrimination because of being a woman. The issue is further complicated when they are cisgender women. As the studies about gender binary have shown, women of all races have to fight for equality with men. Historically, they are perceived as the lesser being. Among the women, the Black women are considered inferior to the White women. Among the Black women, cisgender women have to face more discrimination as compared to others. 

This section highlighted how women are born into and live in a position of subordination and how Black women are robbed of their womanhood due to not meeting the standards of white womanhood dictated by gender duality.  Gender binary interaction with race and the impact of this interaction on the marginalization of Black cisgender women is discussed. It has provided a backdrop on which the analysis of the #SayHerName movement will be built to answer the research question. This chapter has answered the first sub-question.

Section Two: Intersectionality: Theoretical Framework

This section evaluates the core concepts and tenets of the intersectionality framework. This section includes vast literature highlighting ideologies of the intersectionality framework developed by Kimberley Crenshaw (1991). 

Introduction to intersectionality

Intersectionality theory analyzes how various identity markers, such as race, gender, class, or sexuality, interact to perpetuate discrimination for black women. This theory was developed by Kimberly Crenshaw (1989) although it was a concept profoundly studied during the second wave of feminism which lasted between the 1960s and the early 1980s (Dudley, 2006). Its fundamental underlying ideology is that Black women experience a different form of discrimination compared to other women. This discrimination is because Black women have intersecting identity markers of race and gender, where they are both Black and female (Crenshaw, 1991). Therefore, Crenshaw asserted that Black women, unlike White women, experience discrimination in the form of racism and sexism due to the interactions between their race and gender (Thomas, 2020). Audre Lorde, an outstanding second wave intersectionality critic, drew attention to the challenges confronted by Black lesbians (Lorde, 2020). In most of the cases, intersectionality works against the Black women. 

Explaining Intersectionality as a Framework

The intersectionality framework asserts that human experiences cannot be understood by analyzing a single category, such as race and gender. According to Judith Butler’s (1999), due to intersectionality markers, gender is a performative function where gender identity is intolerant of unconventional sexuality. According to Butler (1999), it is the social construct of gender that defines the role and status of gender in society. Also, feminist scholar Audre Lorde (2020) pointed out that Black women are generally considered outsiders, and feminist studies and scholars tend to overlook the challenges presented to Black women due to intersectionality. According to Lorde (2020), it is the intersectionality of various factors in a society that defines the status and role of women in society. Race, class, and various other social identities are significant in this regard.  

Crenshaw’s (1991) concept of intersectionality and Afro-pessimism are interrelated concepts. Afro-pessimism further complicates the situation for these women. There is systematic racism against the Black people that these women are also subjected to. According to Audre Lorde (2020), when the impacts of these frameworks are combined, Black women are at the most disadvantaged place.  

Collins (2015) insists that understanding how social categories impact the human experience requires studying them about each other. Crenshaw’s ideas underline that social categories like race, gender, and class interact with various laws, policies, and institutions. Hankivsky (2014) asserts that these interactions dictate various power structures within these categories, thus, resulting in privilege and oppression for some within these social categories. Comparing the points raised by Crenshaw (1991) and Hankivsky (2014), it becomes clear that Black cisgender women are at a disadvantage in these power dynamics. 

Key Concepts of the Intersectional Theory 

Crenshaw (1991) argues that multiple social categories should be considered to understand human life fully. People’s lived experiences are shaped by their membership in diverse social categories (Collins, 2015). Hankivsky (2014) acknowledges that hierarchy exists across all social categories. These hierarchies signify power relations where the superior hierarchies enjoy various privileges, and the inferior hierarchies are disadvantaged (Hankivsky, 2014). Considering the point of view presented by Hankivsky (2014) and Crenshaw (1991), the concepts of intersectionality and power dynamics become very important in highlighting the disadvantaged position that Black cisgender women find themselves in. 

Time and space are crucial notions in intersectionality. Collins (2015) argues that race, gender, class, and sexuality are social constructs and, thus, are fluid and bound to change. Time and space influence when and where people live and interact and their experiences within these interactions at particular locations and eras (Hankivsky, 2014). For example, Black women in Africa may not experience systemic racism compared to their American counterparts because their histories- determined by time and space- drive a difference in their experiences. According to Hankivsky (2014), time and space affect the construction of knowledge, world perspectives, and the meaning-making behind various social hierarchies. The dynamic nature of intersectionality further complicates the impact of gender norms. 

This chapter provides theoretical underpinnings to this research, which is required to answer the research questions. This chapter has focused on the concept of intersectionality and how factors like time and space have an impact on the outcomes. The impact of the dynamic nature of intersectionality is also discussed here.  

Section Three: Intersecting Identity Markers

This section explores how various identity markers, including race, gender, class, and sexuality, intersect to impact the experiences of Black cisgender women. This section also introduces literature on Afro-pessimism to elaborate on how being Black automatically designates one to a disadvantageous position. 

Exploring Intersecting Identity Markers such as Race, Gender, Class, and Sexuality

Race. Physical anatomical features like skin color and eye shape are essential race markers. Frable (1997) argues that race differs from ethnicity because the latter refers to distinctions based on nationality or tribal affiliations, not physical appearance. There are five different racial categories frequently used in research. Suyemoto et al. (2020) list these groups as Black/African American, non-Hispanic White, Hispanic/Latino, Asian, American Indian/Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, or other Pacific Islander. These manufactured classifications show that race is a social construction. Suyemoto et al. (2020) argue that these socially constructed racial groups are meant to create and maintain oppressive power relations between various races. By dehumanizing the Black people, their inhuman experiences are justified by the oppressors. 

Gender. Gender refers to the learned constructions defining femininity and masculinity (Eckert & McConnell Ginet, n.d.). Gender refers to the characteristics and traits accompanying the state of being a man or a woman. Frable (1997) claims that sex is something that one is born with, but gender is learned, constructed, and performed daily. Gender identity also transcends the binary limitations imposed by sex, where one can only be male or female (Tharp, n.d). Gender should be considered as another social construct that goes against cisgender Black women. When gender intersects with Black race, Black cisgender women’s identity is placed at a further disadvantaged position (Crenshaw, 1991). 

Class. Wright (2003) explains wealth may comprise economic, social, and cultural affluence.  Generally, people sharing similar levels and resources are categorized under one class. These categorizations are determined by analyzing income and wealth, level of education and consumption, type of housing tenure, family and social connections, and other factors. Townsend (1979) acknowledges that these factors are interrelated, and none can sufficiently indicate class when considered in isolation. Classes are social constructions, as depicted by the characterization of incomes to signal various classes (Rose, 2016). Black women face a disadvantage when it comes to their race and gender. The situation is further complicated when these women are from the working class. The intersectionality of class, gender, and race leads to discrimination. 

Sexuality. Sexuality refers to what a person desires, is attracted to, or finds pleasurable in erotic contexts and the meanings attached to these erotic desires, attractions, and inclinations (The Social Construction of Sexuality, 2021).  Sexuality is a social construction created by people, communities, and socio-historical events. Frable (1997) maintains that norms that dictate conventional sexual behavior may change across. Sexuality is fluid and may take various forms. The sexuality of Black cisgender women goes against them due to the intersectionality of sexuality with race and gender. 

Analysis of How Intersecting Identities Shape Discrimination Experiences for African American Cisgender Women

Race, gender, class, and sexuality interact to shape experiences of discrimination for Black cisgender women. The intersectionality of various social factors works against cisgender Black women in various ways. For example, the pay gap between White men and Black women working in the same position is huge. Similarly, the frisk and search rate that Black women are subjected to is double what White women in America face. This is a systematic discrimination that results from the intersectionality of various social constructs. Afro-pessimist lens is needed to conduct this analysis. 

The details provided in the previous section show that although race and gender have their impacts on the social placement of Black cisgender women, it is the intersectionality of these factors that brings these women to a position of disadvantage. Comparing the findings from Crenshaw (1999), Frable (1997), and Townsend (1997), it can be said that it is the interaction of various factors that lead to systematic discrimination against Black cisgender women.  

Afro-pessimism

Afro-pessimism argues that Black people live in a world where their humanity is equated to nothing, and blackness is associated with moral decay (Davis et al., 2018; Moten, 2013; Warren, 2018). According to Moten (2008b), in an anti-black world, blackness is associated with a less-than-human status. As a result, Black people are expected to detach themselves from their blackness, which is symbolic of moral decay (Sexton, 2011; Olson, 2004). Afro-pessimist scholars such as Frantz Fannon claim that ontology and metaphysics do not create space to recognize the Black person as a human being (Leung, 2023; Moten, 2008a). As a result of the omission of the Black man from metaphysical ideologies, Black people are condemned to a “space of metaphysical oblivion,” a “zone of nonbeing” (Hart, 2018, p. 18). The situation is worse for Black women. 

Wilderson (2020) contends that Black people will forever be viewed as inferior beings due to slavery.  Slavery reduced Black bodies into objects or tools for the enslaver (Warren, 2015). Wilderson (2020) argues that the institution of slavery in America was fueled by the transatlantic slave trade, which pioneered the social death of Black people. Social death refers to a condition where the subjectivity of sentient beings is denied (O’Donnell, 2020). Social death is marked by the loss of identity, social connectedness, and the dehumanizing of the body (Králová, 2015). Afro-pessimism reflects that being born as a black person is a being born into a position of disadvantage due to the different meanings attached to blackness. 

Black Cisgender Women’s Experiences as a Product of Intersecting Identities

Black cisgender women, unlike White cisgender women, report incidents of racial discrimination that limit access to opportunities such as education, housing, and employment (Settles et al., 2008). Gržinić & Stojnić (2018) explain that Black people endure captivity their whole lives, as depicted by their interactions with the state and the rest of Americans. 

Black cisgender women experience higher rates of violence, both gender-based and police-based, compared to White cisgender women (Reed, 2020). Furthermore, these interactions with violence might be exacerbated by one’s social class. Crenshaw (2015) argues that Black women experience poverty at higher rates than White women, Black men, and White men. These socio-economic disparities make Black women more dependable on their partners, further increasing their chances of experiencing both domestic and police violence (Settles, 2008). Hart (2015) claims that degrading gaze increases the consciousness of Black women as relating to their bodies, further making them a target for degradation through various offensive stereotypes. 

This section plays a crucial role in examining how various intersecting identity markers interact to shape the experiences of Black cisgender women. The intersection of various factors contributing to the plight of Black cisgender women is discussed in this chapter. This intersectionality has been reviewed with the Afro-pessimism lens. The review of these concepts provides a theoretical backdrop that will further assist in answering the research questions. 

Section Four: Historical Constructions of African American Femininity

This section evaluates how Black femininity is historically constructed. The literature further explores the media’s role in perpetuating and reinforcing stereotypes and how cisgenderism interacts with the constructions behind Black femininity in supporting these stereotypes. 

Overview of Historical Constructions of African American Femininity from Slavery Era to Current Times

During slavery, Black women were denied and deemed equal to Black men (Morris & Geneseo, 2011).  According to Upadhyay (2021), slavery imposed various conditions that made black female and male bodies fungible with each other. The dissociation of enslaved black female bodies with gender was deliberately done to strip black women of their womanhood. The role of gender is highly significant in historical constructions. 

In her 1851 speech, “Ain’t I am Woman?”, Sojourner Truth gave her first-hand account as an enslaved person. She detailed ensuring hard slave labor, beatings, and having her children sold into slavery (Brah & Phoenix, 2013). Truth questions why she endured such atrocities amidst societal endorsement of chivalry. Thomas (2020) asserts that during slavery, Black women were perceived as possessing masculine strength and unfit for motherhood. Truth’s narrative explains how being a Black person and a woman put her at a position of disadvantage in comparison to White women and Black men. 

Black femininity was also deemed as inferior during the segregation era (Armstrong, 2012). Racial segregation utilized the Jim Crow policies to subjugate African Americans by denying them equal rights and opportunities (Armstrong, 2012).  Black women were not considered equal to white women and were not afforded the same rights and protections. Thomas (2020) affirms that Black women were victims of lynching and sexual violence. 

Black women were less likely to be perceived as victims of rape due to stereotypes about their hypersexualized and promiscuous nature (Crenshaw, 1991). Armstrong (2012) elaborates that a majority of Black women engaged in high-risk activism during the Civil Rights era, which resulted in police brutality, death threats, and other forms of persecution. Furthermore, acts of deviance from Black women during this era also contributed to the conception of Black women as loud and unruly (Armstrong, 2012).  

Stereotypes classify Black women into various tropes, such as the strong Black woman (Sapphire), the Jezebel, and the Welfare mom (Thomas, 2020). A current prevalent stereotype for black women is that of the sapphire.  Thomas (2020) opines that while this stereotype symbolizes the strength of Black femininity, it also represents black cisgender women as angry and rude and with a desire to dominate.  Such a trope thus signifies a woman determined to disrupt the status quo of male domination (Thomas, 2020). 

Stereotypes, Media Representations, and Cultural Narratives Shaping Historical Constructions of Black Femininity 

Jackson (2017) explains that Black women are perceived through a lens of multiple offensive stereotypes that create controlling images of Black femininity, determining how other people understand, embrace, and penalize Black womanhood. Media representation of these women is also very negative, which dehumanizes them further. Those who do not belong to this group find the injustices and discrimination against them justified because of this intersectionality and dehumanization. Jackson (2017) adds that Jezebel is perceived as a sexually aggressive and promiscuous woman with an insatiable sexual appetite. This stereotype originated from the hyper-sexualization of Black bodies during slavery (The Social Construction of Sexuality, 2021). This stereotype was used to justify the sexual abuse of Black enslaved women by White men and to deprive them of equal protection as non-enslaved white women. 

The welfare mother/queen or mammy stereotype depicts Black women as hypersexualized mother figures and bad mothers with poor morals (The Social Construction of Sexuality, 2021).  Welfare queens are also conceptualized as poor, uneducated single mothers who are dependent on government assistance.  Jackson (2017) suggests that this stereotype depicts Black women as breeders of many children, a conceptualization originating during slavery. When the media portrayal of Black women is compared with that of White women, it becomes obvious that White women are considered the standard. Black women are criticized for the color of their skin, their gender, and their racial makeup. 

Media representations often depict Black women as Jezebels. These depictions are primarily present in music videos, especially those of hip-hop and rap. Crenshaw (1991) explores sexually- explicit rap lyrics of the “2 Live Crew” from their song Nasty. The lyrics to Nasty used derogatory language that depicted Black women as “nymphomaniacs and morally- loose” (Crenshaw, 1991, p. 1284). There are many other contemporary examples from the media. For example, Black women are labeled as angry and arrogant. They are portrayed as hypersexual beings and labeled as jezebel. Some of them are labeled as asexual beings or mammy types. These media representations continue to shape the perception of Black women in contemporary society. 

Additionally, Black women are also portrayed as Jezebels on various television shows. The character Olivia Pope on ABC’s show Scandal (2012-2018) depicts the traits of Jezebel. According to King (2015), Pope is a beautiful Black cisgender woman of a fair complexion who seduces and starts an illicit affair with the President of the United States. Pope also seduces Captain Jake Ballard are continuously seduced by Pope throughout the show (King, 2015). The depiction of Pope as a Jezebel who seduces white men of power perpetuates the image of women as Jezebels who are ready to seduce and corrupt the White man. Likewise, Pope is portrayed through the trope of a sapphire, a strong black woman who is never to show her vulnerabilities (King, 2015).  Sapphires are also considered to be sexually-aggressive and deviant to authority (Jackson, 2017). 

The Intersection of Historical Constructions with The Gender Binary and Perpetuation of Discrimination against Black Cisgender Women

Jackson (2017) asserts that dominant groups use controlling images as instruments of subordination by portraying other groups as out of the norm.  For example, the historical construction of Jezebel contradicts gender duality norms that expect women to be pure and chaste as a way of preserving their dignity (Thomas, 2020). By portraying the Jezebel stope, Black cisgender women are therefore denied equal protection because they are perceived as perpetuating their sexual abuse by depicting themselves as hypersexual seductresses. 

Furthermore, Black cisgender women have been viewed through the controlling images of the sapphire or the strong black woman. King (2015) explains that these women are perceived to be “stubborn, bitchy, bossy, and hateful” (p.46). Such women are also perceived as rebellious to authority and deemed incontrollable and unsubmissive. Such women are viewed as contradicting certain gender duality norms.  The historical constructions of the Black cisgender woman as a strong Black woman have also been used to perpetuate discrimination against Black cisgender women. Various ideologies justify the use of violence as a means of controlling stubborn and disrespectful Black cisgender women. Shahrazad Ali’s book The Blackman’s Guide to Understanding the Black Woman claims that the failure of Black men to curtail Black women’s insubordination was responsible for all the social ills in the black community. Such a notion reveals that the Black cisgender woman is viewed as someone who needs to be controlled through violence because she defies male authority. 

Jackson (2017) argues that welfare mothers were historically viewed as poor, uneducated women, and bad mothers. They were also perceived as hypersexual as they were deemed to have many children with different men despite their deplorable conditions and poor ability to raise children. These women are also perceived as fraudulent and dependent on welfare money (Jackson, 2017). As De Beauvoir (1949) argues, women have been socialized since childhood to embrace roles and values that will make them good mothers, wives, and grandmothers. By breaching values and norms of proper womanhood and motherhood, welfare queens face various discriminative policies. For example, many states have welfare policies that prohibit women from receiving further assistance after having another child while on welfare (The Social Construction of Sexuality, 2021).  

This section plays a critical role in furthering a central argument established at the end of the previous section, where Black cisgender women suffer double disadvantages due to their gender and race. Highlighting the literature on the historical constructions of Black womanhood cultivates an understanding of how various offensive stereotypes related to Black women exist. By reviewing the historical construct, this chapter prepares for the contemporary manifestations and analysis of the #SayHerName case study. This chapter has answered the second sub-question. 

Section Five: Contemporary Manifestations of Discrimination: #SayHerName

This section explores how systemic racial discrimination manifests in the United States through the #SayHerName Movement. This section provides background on the #SayHerName Movement, including reasons for its emergence and development. This section also explores how cisgenderism interacts with race to promote police brutality against Black women. 

Introduction to the #SayHerName Movement 

 The #SayHerName movement was established to raise awareness of the high prevalence of police brutality against Black women. This movement gained traction following the death of Sandra Bland, a Black woman who mysteriously died under police custody in 2015 (Reed, 2020). Amuchie (2016) argues that many anti-violence movements, such as #BlackLivesMatter, focus on police brutality among Black men, thus, condemning Black women’s experiences to invisibility. The deaths of Black men- such as Micheal Brown, George Floyd, and Eric Garner- at the hands of police were at the center of Black anti-brutality protests. However, these protests ignore the experiences of Black women at the hands of the police. The #SayHerName movement is built on a long history of injustice and systematic discrimination faced by Black women. This movement depicts that due to the intersectionality of factors like race, gender, social class, and sexuality, Black women have to struggle a lot more to present their case to the public. Historically speaking, Black women have been subjected to discrimination, police brutality, and sexual violence. Their media portrayal stereotyped them as jezebels and sapphires. The #SayHerName movement is a natural reaction to the long history of injustice these women have faced. As discussed, media portrayals and stereotyping as jezebels and sapphires have worked against Black cisgender women by justifying injustice against these women. Black cisgender women have been subjected to a lot of discrimination and sexual violence. The horrific lived experiences of Black cisgender women are justified by many who believe that all Black cisgender women are fit for the role of jezebels and sapphires just because the media says so. This portrayal has added another angle to the intersectionality of factors that lead Black cisgender women to a position of disadvantage. 

The New York Civil Liberties Union (2024) reports that 59% of persons stopped by law enforcement in New York City are Black with only 6% being White and the remainder representing other minorities such as Arab, Asian, and Latins. Black women face a higher number of police brutality incidents due to the disadvantaged position they are placed in. The #SayHerName movement started as an effort by Black women to raise their voices against the violence and discrimination they have to face. Marlene Pinnock was punched in the face by a California Highway Patrol Officer.  Keyarika Diggies was beaten in a Texan police precinct.  Another video shows a police officer in McKinney, Texas, holding down a teenage girl, Dejerria Becton, at gunpoint. These images are evidence that, like Black males, Black females are subject to police brutality and are subject to racial profiling. The #SayherName movement is an advocacy against state-sponsored or directed violence against Black women, addressing the discrimination and profiling of Black women (Brown et al., 2017). 

Unlike Black men, Black women face an increased risk of experiencing sexual assault at the hands of police while under their custody (Amuchie, 2016). In her report, Say Her Name: Resisting Police Brutality Against Black Women, Crenshaw highlights Black female victims of police brutality who also suffered sexual assault while under police custody. Crenshaw et al. (2015) argue that sexual stereotypes of Black women as promiscuous often drive sexual assault while under police custody.  #SayHerName, as a movement, thus, aims to support a gender-inclusive strategy to pursue the equal protection of all Black lives regardless of gender. Therefore, this movement highlights Black women as vulnerable yet forgotten victims of police brutality. 

The #SayHerName movement is decentralized, yet it involves various activists, social justice organizations, and Black women in general. Through its social media presence, this movement aims to highlight disproportionately high police brutality against Black women. This movement sheds light on the intersectionality of race, gender, social class, and sexuality, that places Black women in a position of disadvantage. The effectiveness of #SayherName as a forum for advocacy against racial-gendered state-sponsored violence was tested by Brown et al. (2017) in a study involving a content analysis of 400,000 tweets.  Research findings revealed that #SayherName not only engaged and mobilized social media activism against the use of police violence on Black women, but it also facilitated a venue for users to bring attention to incidents of violence against Black women (Brown et al., 2024). The ability to give expression to and draw attention to incidents of police brutality against Black women on a mega social media outlet such as Twitter is a hallmark accomplishment because it publicizes state violence and invites accountability via a trial in the court of public opinion.

The importance of social media and other forms of digital communications via #SayherName is revealed by Williams (2016). Williams pointed out that in 2015, violence against Black women in the United States was particularly alarming in numbers and frequency.  Nearly 24 transgender Black women were killed, and an ex-police officer was tried for raping 13 African American women one of whom was a 17-year-old. The rapes occurred in Oklahoma City and were not published in the main media outlets (Williams, 2016). With the #SayherName movement, these incidents of violence against Black women in the United States and any other incidents can be freely discussed and debated in a public forum. 

The actors outside this movement have varied responses to the #SayHerName movement. Some of the media and individuals amplified the voices raised by Black women and their supporters through social media. In other cases, the media failed to provide fair coverage to the women facing ongoing discrimination. Further research on incidents where Black women go missing and are neglected by the media compared to how White women are treated can also clarify why a movement such as #SayherName is important for navigating Afro-pessimism and intersectionality manifestations in the lives of cisgender Black women. 

There are some successes and some shortfalls of the #SayHerName movement. The biggest success of this movement is that it has highlighted how race and gender binary have negatively impacted Black women, especially cisgender women. There is a lot more awareness. Police brutality against Black women has not stopped. However, the law enforcers are concerned about their media portrayal because of the massive success and public approval of the #SayHerName movement. This movement has direct and indirect impacts on policymaking and legislature concerning Black women and police brutality. There are many shortfalls, too. This movement is decentralized, so despite huge public backing, there are no representatives to negotiate and advocate for the equal rights of Black women. 

Race and Gender Binary in the Perpetuation of Discrimination Against Black Cisgender Women 

Black people are assigned a fugitive status, a constant innate desire to escape their captivity (Moten, 2008a). According to O’Donnell (2020), uniquely Black experiences such as social hatred, mass incarceration, unsanctioned state violence, political censorship, and economic dispossession signal the captivity of Black people. 

Since slavery, social hierarchies in American society have been formulated by first and foremost considering race, then gender. This hierarchy places white men at the top, followed by White women, Black men, and Black women (Amuchie, 2016). Therefore, considering the experiences of Black cisgender women with discrimination must consider race, the meanings attached to blackness, and how these meanings perpetuate discrimination and prejudice. Therefore, movements such as #SayHerName simultaneously rebuke the killing of Black women by police and the prejudice of the police, connecting blackness with criminality and other social ills. This movement depicts Black women as victims of unfortunate circumstances and experiences influenced by their race, gender, and social class (Crenshaw et al., 2015). Crenshaw et al. (2015) reflect numerous profiles of Black women who suffered various forms of police brutality, and most of these women were from low socio-economic backgrounds. Such notions underline an awareness of how intersectionality impacts Black women’s experiences with law enforcement. Amuchie (2016) affirms that white patriarchal society idolizes the image of a Eurocentric woman; thus, Black women are subjected to violence and prejudice because they are not viewed to be feminine. 

This analysis earlier established that Black cisgender women are perceived through several offensive stereotypes. These stereotypes also contribute to the discrimination of Black cisgender women because they portray behaviors that contradict the established gender norms. However, various stereotypes used to define Black women, such as the hypersexual and promiscuous Jezebel, perpetuate various controlling images about Black women that perpetuate their discrimination. For example, Black cisgender women are less likely to be perceived as innocent victims in sexual assault incidents due to their perceived promiscuity. At the same time, Black women are more likely to be sexually assaulted, less likely to report their attacks, and less likely to even seek post-attack treatment and care (Uliman & Lorenz, 2021). There is limited research done on this topic through the lens of Afro-pessimism.  Uliiman and Lorenz (2021) have called for further research on the experiences of Black women who have been sexually assaulted.

Jackson (2017) elaborates that Black cisgender women are left unprotected against cases of sexual violence. Black cisgender women are often racially profiled as drug peddlers and prostitutes by police officers. These stereotypes are used to perpetuate and justify acts of sexual harassment and violence by the police against Black cisgender women (Lawson, 2018). Furthermore, police officers seldom exercise caution when interacting with pregnant Black women or Black women who are in the company of their children. Such aspects show persistent patterns of diminishing Black motherhood. Crenshaw (2015) posits that these patterns are fueled by harmful stereotypes that depict Black women as unfit mothers and criminals. 

In conclusion, Black cisgender women frequently experience police brutality. However, these instances are rarely documented due to the increased focus on police brutality on Black men. The #SayHerName movement highlights and creates awareness of violence against Black women by law enforcement. Police violence against Black women results from their interacting identity markers and the historical constructions of Black womanhood. Afro-pessimism demonstrates how Black women are criminalized based on their race, while the historical constructions of Black women as jezebels further perpetuate sexual violence against Black cisgender women by the police. Therefore, besides resisting police brutality, the #SayHerName movement also fights the degradation of Black womanhood. 

Despite various strengths and shortcomings of the #SayHerName movement, some significant institutional changes have been possible because of this movement. The first aspect in which this movement has played a very positive role is that it has highlighted the gross injustice that Black women face due to the intersectionality of race and gender. The impact of this movement on public and policy discourse cannot be ignored. The #SayHerName movement has increased public awareness regarding police brutality issues faced by Black women. It has led to various meaningful conversations on multiple platforms. There are policy reforms and legislative steps taken due to the awareness created by this movement. For example, police reforms due to the #SayHerName movement are focused on reducing excessive use of force. Similarly, domestic violence laws have taken better shape in light of this movement. Due to the awareness spread by the #SayHerName movement, there are some institutional changes in law enforcement agencies. The law enforcers are compelled to focus on policies to ensure there is no discrimination and implicit bias. Training of law enforcers to become more inclusive and accepting towards diversity is a result of this movement. Similarly, this movement has cautioned the media to be more responsible about their coverage of Black women. 

This section ties together the study’s main argument by depicting how gender binarism and race interact to promote police brutality targeting black cisgender women. Understanding the origins and development of the #SayHerName movement creates a clear comprehension of how police brutality among Black women is rampant yet seldom highlighted. The third and fourth research questions are answered in this section.  

Conclusion

This research has aimed to study the impacts of gender binary on Black cisgender womanhood. The core question is focused on how the #SayHerName movement reflects the impacts of gender binary on Black cisgender womanhood. A review of secondary literature is presented in sections one through five. This review of secondary literature and the review of various primary sources in the fifth section combine various sources of knowledge to answer this question. In conclusion, the answers to the research sub-questions will be presented before answering the core question. 

The first sub-question is focused on the impacts of the gender binary on Black cisgender women. Various literature sources discussed in the first section depict that Black cisgender women are placed at a position of disadvantage due to their gender. Women are considered to be inferior to men. However, the case is highly complicated for Black cisgender women because they face an intersectionality of factors like race, gender, sexuality, and social class, all of them putting them in a highly disadvantaged position. This research has concluded that Black women suffer more than Black men, White women, or White men. Gender binary works against them and the situation is further complicated by other factors.  

The second sub-question is focused on how Black cisgender womanhood is constructed historically. Historically, Black cisgender womanhood has been constructed to put them in a place of disadvantage. Slavery, afro-pessimism, and stereotyping of Black women have led these women to have unique experiences. They are considered to be the lesser beings, who are expected to be submissive. Their role is historically constructed to fit some stereotypes. For example, during the slavery period, many Black women were labeled as sexually hyper beings. This was done to justify the sexual abuse and violence propagated towards them by White men. Overall, Black cisgender women suffered more than transgenders and others, because they were historically constructed as lesser beings. 

The third sub-question is focused on the intersection of identities involved in the #SayHerName movement. The intersectionality framework is crucial to demonstrating the unique experiences of Black cisgender women courtesy of their status of being Black and women simultaneously. This paper illustrates how race, gender, class, and sexuality interact to perpetuate discrimination against Black cisgender women.  By adopting an Afro-pessimism and arguing how blackness is devalued and equated to nothing, this analysis demonstrates that being born Black automatically places African American cisgender women at a position of disadvantage. The interaction between the intersecting identity markers of race, gender, class, and sexuality makes Black cisgender women more likely to experience police brutality, as depicted by the analysis of the #SayHerName movement. The complexity of the unique oppressive experiences faced by cisgender Black women can be understood by applying the frameworks of intersectionality and Afro-pessimism.

The fourth sub-question focused on the media portrayal of the movement and how it relates to the historical construction and representation of Black cisgender womanhood. This study has shown that Black cisgender women have suffered for a long time because of the intersectionality of various factors. Their media portrayal puts them in stereotypical roles, which adds to the discrimination and abuse these women face. This study has shown that the media portrayal of Black cisgender women is in line with the disadvantaged historical construction of their identities. Various identity markers have been put to use by the media to place these women in a more disadvantaged position. 

Overall, this research concludes that the #SayHerName movement is one example that reflects the impacts of gender binary on Black cisgender womanhood. The review of primary and secondary sources has shown that the lived experiences of Black cisgender women are more complicated and demeaning as compared to those of Black men. The problems faced by Black women are invisible to many people due to the historical construction of their being and the intersectionality of various factors. All of these factors, including race, gender, social class, sexuality, and media representation go against Black cisgender women. The interaction of these factors, when viewed through the lens of Afro-pessimism and anti-Blackness, leads to a very compromised and disadvantageous position for Black cisgender women. The #SayHerName movement highlights that, along with other factors, the gender binary hurts Black cisgender women’s lives. Their struggles are harsher than even the Black men’s.

There is a dire need for advocacy for equal rights of Black cisgender women. A logical step would be to bring in some policy changes that can truly ensure equality and freedom for all. The first step is to create awareness. Although the #SayHerName movement has created a lot of awareness, there is a dire need to engage more people, especially those who are not Black, to spread the message of equality and freedom. Awareness of the issue can lead to advocacy for inclusivity and acceptance of diversity on multiple platforms. These steps can lead to policy changes. Also, more research is needed on the topic.  Although this study has provided a lot of detail about the intersectionality of factors, including race and gender, that lead to the plight of Black cisgender women, primary research should be carried out on the topic in the future. By conducting primary research with Black cisgender women, their point of view can be studied in more detail. Such future studies can help bridge the gaps that this research could not because of its limited scope.

Based on research findings, it is recommended that qualitative research taking a phenomenological approach is carried out. Such research should interview Black cisgender women who have been subjected to police brutality or institutionalized stereotypes. The lived experiences of Black cisgender women in police custody and everyday life can help to explain the extent of the challenges this group of cohort experiences in the 21st century with a growing list of gender groups seeking equality and equal opportunities.

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